Absenteeism, Causes and Effects Essay

I. Meaning Absenteeism is the term generally used to refer to unscheduled employee absences from the workplace. Many causes of absenteeism are legitimate, for example personal illness or family issues, but absenteeism also can often be traced to other factors such as a poor work environment or workers who are not committed to their jobs. If such absences become excessive, they can have a seriously adverse impact on a business’s operations and, ultimately, its profitability. The Labour Department in India defined the absenteeism rate as the total man-shifts lost because of absences as a percentage of the total number of man-shifts scheduled. So for calculation of the rate of the absenteeism we require the number of persons scheduled to work and the number actually present. II .Causes of the absenteeism The rate of the absenteeism in Indian industries is very high and cannot be dismissed. A Statistical study of absenteeism of Indian Labour observed that, the basic cause of absenteeism in India is that industrial worker is still part-time peasant. Thus the workers go to find jobs at cities after the harvesting their crops. It means that when the transplanting season. These workers consider to the modern industrialism is insecure. Thus, cause to high rate of the absenteeism in the industrial sector. According to the Labour Investigation Committee (1946), there were many reasons that caused the absenteeism of the industrial workers. The Commission pointed out many factors which caused the absenteeism in Indian industries. These factors are: 1. Sickness and low vitality: The committee pointed out that sickness is most important responsible for absenteeism in almost of the in Industrial sector. Epidemics like cholera, small-pox and malaria always break out in severe from in most industrial areas. The low vitality of the Indian workers makes them easy prey to such epidemics and bad housing and unsanitary conditions of living aggravate the trouble. However, the Commission has been noticed that the rate of absenteeism among the female workers is higher than their male counterparts. 2. Means of Transport: The Commission also stated that the transport facilities also play very important to contribute the absenteeism of the worker in the industries. It has been pointed out that, the rate of absenteeism is higher in those factories where transport facilities are not easily available as compared to those where such facilities are easily available or provided by the factory itself . 3. Hours of work: The long hours of work also affect the workers’ efficiency and consequently their sickness rate and absenteeism rate are increased. 4. Nightshift: It has also been pointed out that there is a greater percentage of absenteeism during the nightshifts than in the dayshifts, owing to the greater discomforts of work during the night-time. 5. Rural exodus: The committee also pointed out that probably the most predominant cause of absenteeism is the frequent urge of rural exodus. It has been noticed that the workers go back to their villages at the time of harvesting and sowing the crops. It increases the rate of absenteeism in factories. 6. Accident: Industrial accident depends upon the nature of work to be performed by the worker and his ability for doing that work. In case of hazardous nature of job, the accidents occur more frequently which lead to higher rate of absenteeism. 7. Social and religious Function: it has been noticed that workers become absent form their duty on occasions of social and religious functions. Since the workers like to join their families on such occasions, they go back to their villages for like to join short periods. 8. Drinking and amusement: the Labour Investigation committee pointed out that drinking and amusements are also responsible for absenteeism. Since drinking and amusements in the late hours of night make it difficult for the workers to reach in time on their duties. They like to become absent rather than late since they know that badli workers will be substituted for them, if they are late. 9.After Pay-Day: the Labour Investigation committee also noted the level of absenteeism is comparatively high immediately after the pay-day because they get their wages, they feel like having a good time or return to their villages to make purchases for the family and to meet them, so the absenteeism is high after they got paid. 10. Nature of work: the absenteeism rate is also affected by the nature of work. According to Prof. William pointed out that absenteeism prevails because workers are not accustomed to the factory life and factory discipline. In other words, absenteeism prevails because the nature of work in factories is different from that for which the worker is accustomed. So when they come to work in the factory, they feel strange, this new situation make them uncomfortable, so lead to high rate of absenteeism of the industrial workers. 11. Other causes : The above factor which are caused the absenteeism in the Industrial which are pointed out briefly by the Labour Commission. However, there can be tow other factors which caused the absenteeism in industrial sector. These factors are: a) personal Factors and b) workplace factors. A. Personal factor: The personal factor also divided into other sub-factors, these are: i. Personal Attitude: there are different attitude of employees. The Employees with strong workplace ethics will respect their work and appreciate the contribution they make to their companies. Such employees will not engage themselves in taking unscheduled off. On the other hand, employees with very low or no work ethics are indiscipline and have lot of integrity and behavioural issues. Since, they feel no obligation towards the company, absenteeism comes easily to them. ii. Age: The younger employees are often restless. They want to spend time with their friends and have fun, rather than being tied down with work responsibility. This lack of ownership often leads them to take unauthorized time off. With age, people gain experience and maturity, which makes them focused and responsible. Their approach is rather professional and they prefer to stick to their chairs to get the work done. If ever they are found absent, then it could be due to sickness. iii .Seniority: Employees, who have been with the company for a long time are well-adjusted with the working culture and the job, therefore, they find no reason to be absent without permission. On the other hand, new hires are more prone to taking ad hoc breaks to unwind themselves. iv. Gender: Women generally do a balancing act by shuffling their time between home and work. Family, being their foremost priority, they don’t think twice before taking a step towards absenteeism. B. Workplace Factors i. Stress: The pressure at work sometimes takes a toll on the employees. This results in increased levels of stress. The employees then resort to excuses that can help them stay away from work. ii. Work Routine: Doing the same job over a period of time can get monotonous. The employees find the job functions boring. They rather choose time off to do something interesting than come to work. iii. Job Satisfaction: If employees do not find their job challenging, dissatisfaction creeps in. That leads to more absenteeism in the workplace. III. Effect of absenteeism: The effects of the absenteeism of the workers in the factories adversely effect to the employers, the cost of production of the factory is increased because of the absent of the workers, by employed extra temporary staffs in order to replace the absentee. The effects of absenteeism in the workplace are directly proportionate to decreased productivity. The company, eventually, is trying to cover up the direct and indirect cost involved to hire temporary staff, and pay employees for overtime. So the cost of the production of the company is increased as the result they increase the price of the commodity, so the consumers have to pay high price for the commodities.. However, the workers themselves also effect of the absenteeism because their income is reduced according to the principle of â€Å"no work no pay†, as the result their standard of live decreased. Thus, absenteeism adversely affects the employers and the workers, and consumers and ultimately , it can be adverse affect to the growth of the economy in the country. so all these give rises to many industrial labour and social problems. IV. Method to remedy the absenteeism As regard to the measure to be adopted to remove the absenteeism, the Bombay Textile Labour Enquiry committee stated that â€Å"the proper conditions of work in the factory, adequate wages, protection from accident and sickness, and facilities for obtaining leave for rest and recuperation constitute the most effective means of reducing absenteeism. The Labour investigation committee, agreed with the above view, stated that â€Å"the excessive fatigue and sweated conditions of work are bound to create a defence mechanism’ in the worker and if adding results are to be obtained, the best policy would be to improve conditions of work and life for the workers and make them feel contented and happy. Therefore, the Committee suggested that the most effective way of dealing with absenteeism is to provide holiday with pay or even without pay and permit workers to attend their private affairs occasionally and thus regularise absenteeism instead of merely taking disciplinary actions for it . Provision of suitable housing facilities in industrial towns should also go a long way in improving attendance. Besides, the above provisions a sense of responsibility towards industry should be created among the workers through proper education and training. The workers’ participation in the management of industry, introduction of an incentive wage scheme and linking wages and bonus with production may also prove very helpful in checking the rate of absenteeism.

What Makes Us Human

Anthropologists say that we are humans because of evolution. The portion of DNA that is responsible for the structure of proteins is 99. 4% common in humans and chimpanzees. Anthropologists say that we are humans because of evolution. The portion of DNA that is responsible for the structure of proteins is 99. 4% common in humans and chimpanzees. The dictionary says that human beings are individuals of the genus Homo, or more specifically, Homo sapiens. That only answers the anthropological aspect of what makes us human.Paul Bae also takes the anthropological stance on humankind saying that â€Å"Changes caused by evolution and time make us human. † When asked what separates humans from animals, he replied saying â€Å"human minds are more developed than animals, allowing humans to be at the top of the food chain. † Psychologists say a distinctive quality in humans is the cognitive process. The cognitive process is a demonstration of the central ability humans possess th at define us. More simply, it is our ability to think and make decisions. The brain plays the most crucial part in the cognitive process.The part of the brain that differentiates the human brain from brains of other species’ is the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex controls senses, thoughts, language and memory. The brain plays the most crucial part in the cognitive process. The part of the brain that differentiates the human brain from brains of other species’ is the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex controls senses, thoughts, language and memory. Aaron Marentette agrees with psychologists and says â€Å"The thing that makes us humans is our ability to make smart choices and just choices in general. When he was asked the question of what difference there is between humans and animals, he responded, saying â€Å"The difference is that we have undergone evolution and therefore, have become more civil. † Finally, sociologists say that the factor that makes humans human is culture. Culture is simply the ideas, abilities, and behaviours people have acquired to become members of society. Culture is always evolving in society and the world and it mainly unique to the human species. Above: Culture plays a huge part in shaping humans.Culture affects how we treat each other and interact. Above: Culture plays a huge part in shaping humans. Culture affects how we treat each other and interact. Below: Culture is specific to humans. Animals indicate SOME aspects of culture but it is ingrained by genetic programming. Humans can change their environment and pass the changes onto their children. Below: Culture is specific to humans. Animals indicate SOME aspects of culture but it is ingrained by genetic programming. Humans can change their environment and pass the changes onto their children.Max Nascimento believes that we are human because â€Å"humans have free will and have the ability to conquer anything we envision. † His thoughts on th e variation between humans and animals are that â€Å"animals walk on four legs, act on instinct, and don’t have a conscience. † All three answers to what makes us human are correct. Evolution made us human through changes in DNA. The cognitive process made us human through our ability to problem solve and think. And finally culture shaped us into the social beings we are. They are all factors that affect humans and differentiate us from any other living species on this planet.

Cause and effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Cause and effect - Essay Example It is often said that people find religion in their deepest and darkest hour, but it is true that just as many people seem to â€Å"slip through the cracks.† Some examples of stressful times in people’s lives are divorce, illness, or the loss of a loved one. There is a small percentage of the population who take drugs for sport performance; however, the vast majority of those who begin taking drugs do so in order to escape whatever problems are facing them in their everyday lives. Everyone experiences hurt, whether physical or emotional, and drugs are a way out to bring relief to the pain that is being felt. A large percentage of people have no intention of becoming regular users; they think that drugs can be used as a short term option in order to relief immediate stress. What many people fail to take into account is that almost every drug is highly addictive. Drugs contain extremely tempting substances such as nicotine that can cause a user to feel dependent on a cert ain drug. This then develops into long term use because the user builds a dependency on that particular drug. Another cause of drug use is peer pressure. This is a cause that is often overlooked because many people do not know how to handle a situation where a close friend is asking them to do something. Human nature causes us to want to fit it, so we inevitably go along with what the group says. Even if someone gives up taking drugs, there will be both short and long term effects that may or may not be able to be reversed. One of the main organs than can be affected by drug use is the heart. Another organ that can be damaged due to drugs is the lungs. Cancer can form in the lungs and may spread to the rest of the body. Depending on the severity of the cancer, it may even cause the loss of someone’s life. Aside from these effects, which are mostly physical, there are other consequences that are over overlooked. Drug use can result in poor performance at work, affect

What do you think about the type of leadership the president of Essay - 3

What do you think about the type of leadership the president of Liberia and Ghana would display on the political scene and why - Essay Example inaugural Chevron Excellence in Leadership Energy Lecture at the James A Baker III Institute for Public Policy on the campus of Rice University, before an audience of several hundred persons. In addition, a new documentary,  Iron Ladies of Liberia, explores the evolving role of President Sirleaf and the women helping her to lead the country in a democratic way. She equally learned, was once an Assistant Administrator, and then Director, of the UN Development Program Regional Bureau for Africa, and served as Minister of Finance from 1972 to 73, but left after a disagreement over public spending. Having lost an election and with 30 years political experience, she favors free and fair elections (A+E Networks, 2012). On the contrary, although President John Evans Atta-Mills had sworn to be father to all Ghanaians irrespective of our political affiliations, he has not lived to the democratic nature of Ghana. The president and his regime lacks leadership qualities, has unprecedented brok en promises, incompetence and corruption. Indeed, the recent voter registration process was marred by violence, killings, alleged beatings, and shooting in some registration centers while the president was just watching. Indeed, with the rising political tension in Ghana, the president ought to show leadership. He and the ruling party face accusations of intimidation of their political opponents (Thompson,

Microbes and Us Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Microbes and Us - Essay Example Perhaps Agaricomycetes are the largest and oldest individuals in any groups of organisms, and they include the largest fruiting bodies in fungi (PÃ ¶ggeler & WÃ ¶stemeyer, 83). Armillaria gallicajkb generate average-sized mushrooms though their mycelial networks have been approximated to cover areas up to 15 hectares. According to Miller et al. (26), Agricomycetes serve as decayers, parasites, pathogens and mutualistic symbionts for both animals and plants. They create their widest ecological effects via their activities like wood-decayers and ectomycorrhizal symbionts of forest trees. Agaricomycetes are extensive in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems, and a few have secondarily returned to aquatic habitats. Miller et al. (31) asserts that Agaricomycetes have a lifecycle similar to that of Basidiomycota. These fungi are nearly usually filamentous, with no yeast phase. Nevertheless, yeasts are produced by some agaricomycetes that are cultivated in an underground fungus gardens by attine ants in the neotropics. The hyphae are divided by septa which are infiltrated by a barrel-shaped dolipore that is bordered by membrane-bound parenthesomes in filamentous form. A dikaryotic mycelium is the dominant stage in the lifecycle although stable diploids have been reported in Armillaria. In some species, dikaryotic and monokaryotic mycelia have been shown to generate asexual spores though asexual forms are obviously not as extensive as in the Ascomycota. Mushrooms are multicellular fruiting bodies generated by dikaryotic mycelia under conducive. There are many forms of mushrooms including puffballs, crustlike resupinate, bracket fungi, and coralloid forms. The basis for the 19thC classification of Agaricomycetes and other fungi was gross morphology of fruiting bodies. The Friesian taxa are no longer viewed as natural entities although these groups remain essential for grouping fruiting body forms and they are emphasized in numerous essential field guides

Teaching Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Teaching Philosophy - Essay Example Our goal as teachers is to help children learn. However, not all children learn in the same manner. Therefore, we should be able to adjust to them. There is never a wrong way to learn things and there is never a stupid question or a dumb opinion when it comes to children. Children will always experiment. They will always discover something new in the process. They will want to try out their new ideas and experiences with other people. Provided that they do not hurt themselves or others, and provided that the teacher is able to guide them towards the proper understanding of what they have just discovered or learned, there is no reason for them not to share it with others. After all, that is how we evolved as a society. The goal of education has always been to help others learn more about themselves and the world around them. To help them realize that the world we live in is not perfect and that there is always room for improvement and change. Education is vital in the occurrence of th ese changes because it is the educator's job to help the students, the learners realize these shortcomings and encourage them to correct what is wrong or invent ways to improve the world. A reconstructionist education will concentrate mostly on helping the students ask the right social questions that will, in turn, help them create a better society in the future. This is of the utmost importance as technology has begun to show signs of taking over the real world by encouraging people to engage in virtual relationships. A mode of interacting that does nothing to help improve our society because people hide behind the cloak of anonymity in it. At present, technology stands as the enemy of education as people tend to misuse the available technology in an effort to undermine others in our society. But a reconstructionist educational platform will be geared towards using technology in the advancement of the brotherhood of men. It will in effect, create a new school of thought that will a llow people to create a more peaceful and open minded society in the future.

Neil Simons influence on Jewish culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Neil Simons influence on Jewish culture - Essay Example So many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the Passover Seder-it's essentially great theater. Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting. It is also clear that Jews have, in one form of another, dominated much of the American theatre, musical theatre and film worlds for much of their existence. Neil Simon is hardly unique in dominating one aspect of the performing arts: he is part of an oligarchy that has been recognized for decades. Simon has brought an eclectic view of what it means to be Jewish to a wide audience for nearly six decades. Thus in The Eugene Trilogy of plays he gives a semi-autobiographical account of his own early life, career and struggles. Brighton Beach Memoirs, the first play of the trilogy, deals with a Jewish teenager who experiences sexual awakening and a search for identity against the backdrop of a complex Jewish family. While not necessarily "about" being Jewish, Simon brings a shrewd sensibility to the idea of the difficulties of growing up and being Jewish (Simon, 1995). Within all of Simon's drama, even the more "serious" tupe as can be seen within the Eugene Trilogy, there is an element of humor. He has brought an ability to view even the most serious matters humorously to a mass audience. In some ways it is easy to see the influence of Neil Simon on icons of Jewish culture such as Woody Allen. The ability to write about a uniquely Jewish experience and yet at the same time to make that experience accessible and even enjoyable to a much wider, often non-Jewish audience has been an inspiration to many different other artists. At times Neil Simon has taken iconic Jewish figures, such as the character of Job from the Bible, and made them accessible to modern audiences. Thus in God's Favorite he transfers the Book of Job to a Long Island Mansion, and manages to make the play both funny and thought-provoking. This play may be seen as part of a recurrent theme that runs throughout many of what at least superficially appear to be light-hearted and comic plays (Konas, 1997). Konas also argues that Neil Simon's comedy is rooted in "people's neuroses" (1997), and one of them that many of Simon's character possess is the fact that they are Jewish. There is a deceptive seriousness to these analyses of Jewish life in America, a deception that allows Simon to introduce the audience to some of their own prejudices and doubts. Thus in Jake's Women the leading character is haunted by the fact that some of his previous relationships have been defined, more or less, with the fact that he was Jewish and the supposed sensibility that goes along with that. Neil Simon's contribution to Jewish culture has been profound. He has brought a decidedly Jewish outlook to stage and film for nearly sixty years, with more than forty plays and thirty screenplays to his credit. He paved the way for other popular artists such as Woody Allen and Mel Brooks to consider Jewishness in perhaps more challenging ways (or at least more controversial ways) than Simon has himself. Such is the role of a catalyst and role-model for others. The

Representation of the femme fatal in sci-fi films, how has the femme Dissertation

Representation of the femme fatal in sci-fi films, how has the femme fatale changed from the 20th centaury to the 21st centaury - Dissertation Example But from literature, the femme fatale has inevitable seeped into other forms of art as well. In film, for instance, the role of the femme fatale has become a recognizable trope in certain genres, even inviting variations like spoofs or parodies of it. In film, the genre of film noir has generally monopolized or been associated traditionally with the use of the femme fatale. Film noir makes room for two kinds of female archetypes: the sweet, dutiful, loving and reliable women and the deceitful, mysterious, subversive and manipulative femmes fatales (Dirks, ‘Femme Fatale’, n.d.). An instance of a film where one finds both kinds is Double Indemnity (1944), where Phyllis Dietrichson, the homicidal wife who feigns interest in and plots with the insurance agent to kill her husband is the typical femme fatale while her step-daughter Lola Dietrichson, loving, honest and helpless, represents the only other type of woman that film noir allows for. The appearance and function of th e femme fatale in films has evolved over the years, and film noir is no longer the genre that monopolizes the use of this figure. Science-fiction films have also been repeatedly invoking the figure of the femme fatale over the years to complement their other thematic concerns. How, why and where this use of the femme fatale has taken place will be evaluated in the course of this paper. What evolving roles has the femme fatale been invoked to perform; what common patterns and departures from such patterns have occurred in their representation; what universal concerns, if any, has the femme fatale stood for: these are a few of the questions which this paper will seek to answer. The femme fatale must first be defined for us to be able to identify her in different works of art. There are certain characteristics that are popularly recognized as being typical of the femme fatale. Tim Dirks’s description of femmes fatales as ‘mysterious, duplicitous, subversive, double-crossin g, gorgeous, unloving, predatory, tough-sweet, unreliable, irresponsible, manipulative and desperate women (‘Femme Fatale’, n.d.)’ puts in place some of these commonly accepted associations of the femme fatale. However, there is no real consensus among either critics or moviegoers of what exactly defines the femme fatale. The term is flexible and allows for a wide range of interpretations. There can be elements of the femme fatale in some characters that do not otherwise wholly conform to the stereotype and vice versa. To begin our exploration into the role of femmes fatales in science fiction films over the years it is instructive to first attempt providing an introduction to, if not a definition of, the femme fatale through the eyes of various critics and scholars over time. This attempt at defining femme fatale has been a long ongoing process in film studies, and not often with much success. There are often inherent obstacles in the act of defining itself. As critic Linda Ruth Williams declares that though most critics try to provide a ‘psychoanalytic or socially informed’ analysis of the femme fatale, what happens more often than not is succumbing to the impulse to ‘

Qualitative Research Designs Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Qualitative Research Designs - Article Example The research design, furthermore, the research methodology utilizes the aspect of phenomenology to describe and examine situations as they consciously happen or experienced (Ekstedt, 2005). The research design is an appropriate design for studying the article on the â€Å"Lived Experiences of the Time Preceding Burnout.† This is because the research design enables the reader to examine situations and develop the relevant experiences from the study according to the experiences of the participants. Consequently, this enables the researcher to develop logical elucidation and the possible solutions to the experience of burnout. The use of phenomenology allows for studying the details of the study thus bringing the actual experiences of the study (Ekstedt, 2005). The other research design method, which could be employed by researches for this article could be grounded theory historical research design. This research methodology utilizes the use of data in order to examine experiences and provide viable solutions to the phenomenon on the study. The grounded theory research depends on collection of data on the phenomenon to be studied and enables the researcher to vitally analyze an experience, become part of the study and solution. The ground theory research allows the researcher to develop and collect sustainable data to provide solutions to situations within the social sphere (Ekstedt, 2005) Ekstedt, M., & Fagerberg, I. (2005). Lived experiences of the time preceding burnout. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49(1), 59–67. Retrieved from:

Cameron International Corp Essay Example for Free

Cameron International Corp Essay The three major issues facing Cameron International (CAM) are acquisitions, environmental, and competition risk. Cameron International is primarily involved in the manufacture of petroleum production equipment, compression and power equipment to direct flows of oil and gas wells. Acquisitions The company is formerly known as Cooper Cameron Corporation. The company growth depends on the availability of natural resources. To be able to be competitive in the industry, it needs to analyze the existing processes and identify the best production method for harnessing oil and gas, and adjusting it manufacturing operations towards the identified need. The Company made significant investments in improving its services and products over the years. During 2004 to 2005, the company has acquired Petreco International and Dresser Flow Control Businesses. Also, â€Å"Recently CAM paid approximately $44 million to acquire DES Operations Limited, a Scotland-based supplier of production-enhancement technology, which will enhance the subsea operations within the Drilling and Production Systems segment† (value line). Subsea operations is the new direction to which the company is heading. In fact, the company is currently working on more than 15 major subsea projects using motors and other equipment made by an aerospace-industry contractor (Factiva Wall Street Journal). These projects will require a longer time, a large increase in financial scope, a need in substantial engineering, and it will also involve the application of existing technology to new environments or new technology (CAM 10K 2006 p. 7). Because this new operations are larger and more complex than traditional operations, the Company may not be prepared for meeting the expertise and technical requirements of the projects. Failure to meet client’s expectations does not only lead to loss in revenue, but also to loss of the significant financial investments committed by the company towards this innovation. The company has had both success and failures in this new endeavor. Subsea operations account for eight percent (8%) of the company’s revenue in 2006 (CAM 10K 2006 p. 7). According to Fortune magazine, the company has raised earnings by producing an array of subsea valves, wellheads and blowout protectors which are currently on high demand. The result is expected to make Camerons profits to climb thirty-nine percent (39%) this year. On the other hand the company experienced backlogs on the projects, amounting to as much as four hundred eight million dollars ($408 millions). Based on these figures, it is clear that the new operations of the Company can be lucrative and risky. As mentioned above, the new operations involve the following risks: not meeting client’s expectations, incurring delay, loss of revenue, loss of opportunity and loss of capital. Environmental Litigation The Company has a strong policy on environment sustainability and has implemented measures to ensure the quality, safety and reliability of its products. It utilizes an all electric sub-sea production system which is designed to reduce environmental contamination risks. It line of compression products offer greater efficiency and reduced emission levels. (Annual report 2006 p. 9) The company has conducted oil risk spills analysis through the OSRA models originally developed by Smith and company, which has been enhanced over the years and uses realistic data fields of winds and ocean currents in the GOM (OCS Report 2007). However, it may be noted that with Cameron’s policy to pursue an electric sub-sea production system, the risk of oil spills is reduced and the likelihood of it being involved in a major oil spill is reduced. In addition to this, the company has exerted efforts towards managing environmental risks involved in subsea operations by contributing in the development of a shut-off device called Environmental Safe Guard. This device has been proven successful in operation under 2000-m water (Simondin, et. al. 2005). Competition Risk Cameron International has maintained a track of growth in the oil industry, from 1833 up to the present. It currently manufactures 50 different brands of drilling and production systems. Growth can be expected to continue. As pointed out in the Company’s annual report (2006), sales of equipment like compression systems has registered a steady increase with the greatest share of revenues accruing from sales outside the United States. The Company has maintained an excellent revenue growth rate at thirty-nine point sixty-seven percent (39. 67%). It also has a net income growth rate of eighty-one point eighty-eight percent (81. 98%), while maintaining a good debt to equity ratio of forty-three point fifty-two percent (43. 2%). Debt to equity ratio is good compared to the industry average of 63% (Corn 2007). A comparison of the company’s ratios with others in the fields provides a clearer picture of its performance in the industry. The company’s touted revenue growth rate is ranked fifteenth (15th) in the industry and is extremely small compared to the leading company. Its long term growth rate is assessed as twenty-one percent (21%), also fifteenth in the industry. These ratios show us that the company’s performance is not the leading company in its industry but it does perform respectably compared with the other players. In its 10K, the company claims that it has a growing global market (CAM 10K p. 7). Some financial analysts agree with this statement. The CEO of Clear Indexes LLC and Clear Asset Management LLC claims that there is an increasing demand for oil in China and India and the Company is â€Å"ideally placed† in supplying the demand for increased production (Corn). However, because of the ties of Corn’s own company with CAM, this statement should not be taken at its face value. In the 30 April 2007 issue of Fortune, the company is only seventh in the industry with Halliburton ranking first. On a positive note, the company did climb up the Forbes 500 list with a present ranking of five hundred fifty-third (553rd) from last year’s six hundred eighty-fifth (685th). (Fortune 500 annual ranking) Based on the analysis above, the company’s performance is acceptable but not stellar. The changes made by the company towards subsea operations may be the wave of the future, providing not only a significant portion of the company’s revenues but also lowering environmental liability risks that are necessarily included in the company’s operations. The move, however, is not without its disadvantages. Subsea operations requires the commitment of large amounts of capital and expertise, expertise that the company has not fully mastered. The failure of the company in this endeavor will adversely affect the company’s growth for years to come.

Effect of Export Performance on Economy

Effect of Export Performance on Economy CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION In this chapter, first we introduce the study by highlighting its background followed by a brief description of Malaysias economy and external trade based on relevant statistics related to economic growth trends and international trade, respectively. Next, we further proceed to look in detail at the export performance concept. Then, we indicate the current major products exported by Malaysian firms, and their main export destinations. Research problem, question, and objectives, followed by the significance, scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed in the last part of the chapter. 1.1. Background of the Study With the increasing trend of globalization, the arena of market and competition for business firms has expanded from domestic markets to the international markets. This has accentuated the importance of understanding the behavior of firms in foreign markets. Exporting represents a viable strategic option for firms to internationalize and has remained the most frequently used foreign market entry mode chosen (Zhao Zou, 2002), as it provides the firm with the flexibility needed to penetrate and compete in new international markets. In 2001, the World Bank published the report Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World Economy. The report shows that 24 developing countries, which increased their integration into the world economy, achieved higher growth in incomes, longer life expectancy and better schooling (Van Dijk, 2002). Exporting is considered to be one of the most important ways for developing countries to link with the world economy. Therefore, it is identified by governments and public policy makers as a priority (Morgan, 1997). 1.1.1. Malaysias Economy and External Trade The Malaysian economy has shown to be one of the most dynamic economies in the Asia Pacific region. The structure of the Malaysian economy had a dramatic transformation in the last five decades. Gradually over this period, it has displayed attributes of newly industrialized country and its economy has shown an impressive track record (Hamid, 2004). The country had an impressive annual growth in the 1970s reaching 7.8%, and continued to grow at a rate of 8.8% in the 1980s except during recession in 1985 to 1986. The recovery started in 1988 and the economy sustained an annual growth of over 8% in the 1990s. However, the Asian financial crisis had the worst impact when the economy shrank by 11.2% year on year in the fourth quarter of 1998 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). This led the Malaysian government to implement several economic policy adjustments which started in 1999 in order to speed up the recovery. Consequently, the economy recorded a positive growth in seven consecutive years. After a strong take-off of 5.3% in 2003, the second half of 2006 recorded a higher than expected growth of 5.9% (Malaysia Economic Report , 2006). Recently, as a result of the global recession, Malaysias real GDP contracted by 6.2% year on year in the first quarter of 2009 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). However, the economy reco vered gradually later in the same year. Malaysias trade policy focuses on greater integration into the world economy and enhancing its global position as a trading nation. The country has consistently maintained its position as the 18th largest global exporter and the 20th largest importer in the last few years (WTO, 2005). Malaysias trade with the world from 2000 to 2009 is illustrated in figure 1. The bar chart shows that Malaysia had a steady increase in total trade. The country reached a peak of approximately RM787.5 billion and RM643.1 billion in 2009 for exports and imports respectively, yielding a trade surplus of RM144.4 billion. This trend is expected to continue in the next few years as more economic reforms would take place, coincided with high growth rates expected. 1.1.2. Export Performance Export performance is broadly defined as the outcome of a firms activities in export markets (Shoham, 1996). The fundamental importance of export performance to international marketing has led to a substantial body of research. It is recognized that research on export performance is of vital interest to three major groups: public policy makers, managers and researchers. First, export performance is important for public policy makers or governments as it contributes to the development of foreign exchange reserves, increases the level of imports a country can afford, provides a vehicle for job creation, improves employment opportunities, improves standards of living, and encourages better working conditions and more efficient business (Lages Montgomery, 2004). Second, at a micro level, managers view exporting as a way to expand their firms access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on their domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth (Freeman Lawley, 2005). Third, as a result of its importance for both policy makers and managers, researchers consider exporting a challenging and promising area for theory building in international marketing (Zou Stan, 1997). Since gaining independence from Britain in 1957, Malaysia implemented a series of 5-year development plans in order to transform its economy from being an exporter of rubber and tin to emerge as one of the worlds largest producers of palm oil products, timber, oil and manufactured products (Wheeler Mohamad, 1993). Additionally, due to its impressive growth, the manufacturing sector has replaced agriculture as the number one sector in the economy. Table 1 shows Malaysias major export products in January 2010. The manufacturing sector remains a dynamic engine of growth for Malaysia with an estimated share of 31.5% of GDP in 2005 (WTO, 2005). It is considered to be the most dominant sector with approximately three quarters of total exports. This is mainly due to the significant contribution of electrical and electronic products as they are Malaysias leading export earner with a value of RM21,372.3 billion, representing 40.75% of total exports in January 2010. Palm oil retained as the second largest export revenue earner with a total value of RM3,985 billion or 7.6% of exports. Third, liquefied natural gas (LNG) made up 6.5% of total exports with RM3,400.3 billion. Chemicals chemical products were the fourth largest commodity accounting for 6% of total exports with RM3,173.9 billion. The remaining different products Table 1: Malaysias major export products in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdfCalculated based on the values of the table. including crude petroleum, refined petroleum products, and others, formed approximately 40% of total exports in the same period. For export destinations, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) was Malaysias major export market in January 2010, with RM7,094.9 billion (13.53% of total exports), as shown in table 2. Table 2: Malaysias major export markets in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdf Calculated based on the values of the table. The next major export destination is Singapore (13.26%, RM6,953.5 billion), followed by Japan (11.15%, RM5,849.7 billion), USA (9.37%, RM4,917.2 billion), and Hong Kong (5.5.%, RM 2,876.2 billion). These top five export destinations accounted for more than half of Malaysias total exports. The statistics reflect the increasing significance of exporting as a key economic tool for growth and development in Malaysia. In addition, despite the downturn caused by the Asian financial crisis thirteen years ago, Malaysia has made rapid strides in economic development through the continuous adoption of appropriate policies and strategies to ensure sustainability of growth (WTO, 2005) as well as to transform the economic structure of the country into a manufacturing and export-based economy. 1.2. Problem Statement, Question, and Objectives of the Study A problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal state (Cavana et al., 2007). It is critical that the problem of the study is unambiguously identified, and followed by a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question and objectives of the study. 1.2.1. Research Problem Much of the knowledge about successful export activity is fragmented, and the tradition of building on previous findings is not well-established in the export marketing field (Aaby Slater, 1989). Many export performance studies focused only on a single factor affecting export performance, while there have been only few attempts to come up with models that incorporate a wide range of relevant factors. These exceptions include, (Cooper Kleinschmidt, 1985); (Cavusgil Zou, 1994). Some of the discrepancies in the literature might be attributable to differences regarding the way in which export performance has been assessed (Walters Samiee, 1990). In this context, the vast majority of studies have utilized objective performance indicators (Katsikeas et al., 1996). However, there are two problems with the use of certain objective measures: First problem is concerned with research methodology i.e. accurate objective indicators of export performance are not easy to obtain since formal company financial statements and reports often make no clear distinction between domestic and export business operations, partially due to the fact that many firms view exporting as an extension of their domestic activities (Yang et al., 1992). Second, a serious comparability caveat may arise as a result of inherent measurement weaknesses underlying most objective measures (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Differences among industries and product subsectors in terms of competition or technology could lead to incoherent comparison across the sample firms. In other words, objective indicators of export performance, such as sales volume, sales growth and market share, might have little meaning in those cases where the firms surveyed belong to different industry or product groups (Covin, 1991). Accordingly, in order to fill this literature gap, it is important to use different indicators to measure the multi-dimensionality of export performance and increase the reliability of the results. In this research, we adopt three subjective indicators to measure export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms by asking respondents three questions to indicate their perceptions in achieving objectives regarding export sales, export market share, and export profitability. We use this subjective composite indicator because, compared to other objective export indicators, it cancels the size effect and it also facilitates comparison between companies of different sizes and industries. 1.2.2. Research Question Are firms characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment associated with export performance? If so, which of these contributes most to the variance of the dependant variable? 1.2.3. Research Objectives This study aims to contribute to the meager but growing literature on firm-level export performance for developing countries by using Malaysia as the empirical platform. The study was designed to reexamine some determinants of export performance mentioned in the export marketing literature, more specifically, certain firms characteristics, export marketing strategy adopted, managements attitudes and perceptions, and export commitment are integrated factors that viewed as significantly influencing export performance. In a nutshell, the study seeks to achieve the following two objectives: To investigate the relationships between export performance on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment on the other hand. Establish the relative importance of each of the independent variables in influencing export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms. 1.3. Significance, Scope, and Organization of the Study In the next few paragraphs, we address the approaches deployed in this paper that contribute to the significance of this research in the context of export marketing field. Further, the scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed subsequently. 1.3.1. Significance of the Study With the increasing global business competition, it has become important, particularly for firms in developing countries, to understand the determinants of export performance as firms survival and expansion, and consequent economic growth of many developing countries are strongly dependent on a better understanding of what determines the export performance (Sousa et al., 2008). In spite of the numerous empirical studies of export performance published since the 1960s, the conclusions reached by researchers in this area have, however, varied widely. The significance of the present study is derived from its design to look anew at some determinants of export performance mentioned in the literature in order to examine their effect on export performance manufacturing firms in Malaysia where export marketing research is of extreme relevance for both practitioners and scholars, knowing that the country is considered to be the worlds eighteenth largest exporter, and the trend is growing significantly over time. For example, exports posted a double digit growth in December 2009, year-on-year, rising significantly by 18.7% to RM54.7 billion, compared with December 2008 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010). 1.3.2. Scope and Limitations of the Study The evidence reported in this paper should be interpreted in the light of several limitations. That is, in addition to the relatively low response rate of just 17%, the research effort was restricted to manufacturing firms within a specific country context, thus caution may be exercised in generalizing the present findings too broadly. Nonetheless, generalizations of the study findings may be applicable to those exporting frameworks with similar structural characteristics of export marketing. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits our ability to rule out cause-effect inferences (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Such one-shot study may not be suitable for a research that involves a dynamic phenomenon, therefore, the adoption of longitudinal studies in future studies can provide more insights into the dynamic aspects of export behavior and performance. Other limitations were related to time constraint, specifically during data collection period which started in mid-February 2010. This stage of the research was coincided with celebrations of the Chinese New Year, on February 14th, the period during which most companies in Malaysia had at least a one week holiday. As a result, it took us a relatively longer time than expected to receive responds in order to proceed for further analysis. 1.3.3. Organization of the Study In this study, an attempt is made to synthesize and empirically test a model of export performance focusing on exporters from an ASEAN member. Specifically, the sudsy constitutes indigenous Malaysian manufacturers trading with overseas distributors. The paper is formatted into several sections. First, an in-depth literature is presented including key theoretical and measurement problems. Next, a conceptual framework of export performance is developed through the statement of several hypotheses. Then, the research design approach and methodological procedures including data analysis are described. Lastly, we present the findings of the study followed by a discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. Summary of Chapter One Through its external trade policy, Malaysia aims primarily for a greater integration into the world economy in order to maintain its position as one of the largest global exporters, specifically exports of manufactured products. At a micro level, export performance refers to the outcome of a firms activities in export markets. It is a way to expand access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth. Studies within the export marketing field are characterized by the discrepancy and fragmentation of the findings. In this context, most export performance studies utilized objective export performance measures. However, this might result in the fragmentation of findings due to some issues related to research methodology and comparability caveat among firms. Therefore, subjective indicators are employed to measure the dimensionality of export performance in the Malaysian context. The objective is delineate the relationship between export performance (dependent variable) on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment (independent variables) on the other hand. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW In this chapter, a conceptual background of export performance is coherently addressed; starting with a relevant review of the export marketing performance literature and their main characteristics including the way in which export performance has been measured. We further proceed to identify and classify the multiple independent variables that have been frequently used in past studies. At the end of the chapter, some examples of the discrepancies in the findings of some studies are highlighted. 2.1. Export Marketing Performance Literature The classical economic view tries to explain why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade based on the assumption that countries differ in their abilities to produce goods efficiently. The comparative advantage theory, for example, helps to explain the pattern of international trade that we observe in the world economy (Heckscher Ohlin, 1991); (Ricardo, 1817); and (Smith, 1776). However, the assumptions underlying the principle of comparative advantage are unrealistic in many countries and industries. That is because competitive advantage depends on the capacity to innovate and upgrade. It also depends on the extent to which a home environment is dynamic, challenging, and forward looking. Therefore, competitive advantage is not inherited; in other words, it does not grow out of a countrys natural endowments, its labor, its interest rates or its currencys value, as classical economics insist (Porter, 1990). A plethora of studies have been published in the past 30 years on the determinants of export performance. This is mainly due to the increasing relevance of export marketing as an area of inquiry. Existing literature shows that the United States is the most researched country in export performance studies. However, an increasing number of studies have been conducted by European researchers from non-English-speaking countries who published in English-language journals. Examples include, (Bijmolt Zwart, 1994), (Holzmuller Kasper, 1991), and (Madsen, 1989). Some other studies have also been conducted in developing countries in Asia and Latin America. Characteristics of the studies reviewed are summarized in table 3. The main characteristics that we focused on are: 2.1.1. Size of the Sample Except for one study which used a data base of 20,161 Indonesian firms from different manufacturing sectors, the size of the samples used in the studies reviewed ranges between 51 and 783. Most of them were drawn from multiple manufacturing industries, while just few such as (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995), had included in the sampling, reselling and service firms in addition to manufacturing firms. 2.1.2. Industry Context of Studies The vast majority of the reviewed studies employed samples drawn from multiple manufacturing industries. Only few have included in addition to manufacturers, reselling and service firms. Examples include (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995). This reflects the importance of manufacturing firms in the world economy. However, findings cannot be generalized to other industry contexts. Table 3: Characteristics of the reviewed articles Solberg 2002 Norway 150 mult manuf SML survey correlation/ anova firm Albaum, Tse 2001 Hong Kong 183 mult manuf SML survey regression firm Gencturk, Kotabe 2001 USA 162 mult manuf SML survey anova firm Effect of Export Performance on Economy Effect of Export Performance on Economy CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION In this chapter, first we introduce the study by highlighting its background followed by a brief description of Malaysias economy and external trade based on relevant statistics related to economic growth trends and international trade, respectively. Next, we further proceed to look in detail at the export performance concept. Then, we indicate the current major products exported by Malaysian firms, and their main export destinations. Research problem, question, and objectives, followed by the significance, scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed in the last part of the chapter. 1.1. Background of the Study With the increasing trend of globalization, the arena of market and competition for business firms has expanded from domestic markets to the international markets. This has accentuated the importance of understanding the behavior of firms in foreign markets. Exporting represents a viable strategic option for firms to internationalize and has remained the most frequently used foreign market entry mode chosen (Zhao Zou, 2002), as it provides the firm with the flexibility needed to penetrate and compete in new international markets. In 2001, the World Bank published the report Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World Economy. The report shows that 24 developing countries, which increased their integration into the world economy, achieved higher growth in incomes, longer life expectancy and better schooling (Van Dijk, 2002). Exporting is considered to be one of the most important ways for developing countries to link with the world economy. Therefore, it is identified by governments and public policy makers as a priority (Morgan, 1997). 1.1.1. Malaysias Economy and External Trade The Malaysian economy has shown to be one of the most dynamic economies in the Asia Pacific region. The structure of the Malaysian economy had a dramatic transformation in the last five decades. Gradually over this period, it has displayed attributes of newly industrialized country and its economy has shown an impressive track record (Hamid, 2004). The country had an impressive annual growth in the 1970s reaching 7.8%, and continued to grow at a rate of 8.8% in the 1980s except during recession in 1985 to 1986. The recovery started in 1988 and the economy sustained an annual growth of over 8% in the 1990s. However, the Asian financial crisis had the worst impact when the economy shrank by 11.2% year on year in the fourth quarter of 1998 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). This led the Malaysian government to implement several economic policy adjustments which started in 1999 in order to speed up the recovery. Consequently, the economy recorded a positive growth in seven consecutive years. After a strong take-off of 5.3% in 2003, the second half of 2006 recorded a higher than expected growth of 5.9% (Malaysia Economic Report , 2006). Recently, as a result of the global recession, Malaysias real GDP contracted by 6.2% year on year in the first quarter of 2009 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). However, the economy reco vered gradually later in the same year. Malaysias trade policy focuses on greater integration into the world economy and enhancing its global position as a trading nation. The country has consistently maintained its position as the 18th largest global exporter and the 20th largest importer in the last few years (WTO, 2005). Malaysias trade with the world from 2000 to 2009 is illustrated in figure 1. The bar chart shows that Malaysia had a steady increase in total trade. The country reached a peak of approximately RM787.5 billion and RM643.1 billion in 2009 for exports and imports respectively, yielding a trade surplus of RM144.4 billion. This trend is expected to continue in the next few years as more economic reforms would take place, coincided with high growth rates expected. 1.1.2. Export Performance Export performance is broadly defined as the outcome of a firms activities in export markets (Shoham, 1996). The fundamental importance of export performance to international marketing has led to a substantial body of research. It is recognized that research on export performance is of vital interest to three major groups: public policy makers, managers and researchers. First, export performance is important for public policy makers or governments as it contributes to the development of foreign exchange reserves, increases the level of imports a country can afford, provides a vehicle for job creation, improves employment opportunities, improves standards of living, and encourages better working conditions and more efficient business (Lages Montgomery, 2004). Second, at a micro level, managers view exporting as a way to expand their firms access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on their domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth (Freeman Lawley, 2005). Third, as a result of its importance for both policy makers and managers, researchers consider exporting a challenging and promising area for theory building in international marketing (Zou Stan, 1997). Since gaining independence from Britain in 1957, Malaysia implemented a series of 5-year development plans in order to transform its economy from being an exporter of rubber and tin to emerge as one of the worlds largest producers of palm oil products, timber, oil and manufactured products (Wheeler Mohamad, 1993). Additionally, due to its impressive growth, the manufacturing sector has replaced agriculture as the number one sector in the economy. Table 1 shows Malaysias major export products in January 2010. The manufacturing sector remains a dynamic engine of growth for Malaysia with an estimated share of 31.5% of GDP in 2005 (WTO, 2005). It is considered to be the most dominant sector with approximately three quarters of total exports. This is mainly due to the significant contribution of electrical and electronic products as they are Malaysias leading export earner with a value of RM21,372.3 billion, representing 40.75% of total exports in January 2010. Palm oil retained as the second largest export revenue earner with a total value of RM3,985 billion or 7.6% of exports. Third, liquefied natural gas (LNG) made up 6.5% of total exports with RM3,400.3 billion. Chemicals chemical products were the fourth largest commodity accounting for 6% of total exports with RM3,173.9 billion. The remaining different products Table 1: Malaysias major export products in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdfCalculated based on the values of the table. including crude petroleum, refined petroleum products, and others, formed approximately 40% of total exports in the same period. For export destinations, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) was Malaysias major export market in January 2010, with RM7,094.9 billion (13.53% of total exports), as shown in table 2. Table 2: Malaysias major export markets in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdf Calculated based on the values of the table. The next major export destination is Singapore (13.26%, RM6,953.5 billion), followed by Japan (11.15%, RM5,849.7 billion), USA (9.37%, RM4,917.2 billion), and Hong Kong (5.5.%, RM 2,876.2 billion). These top five export destinations accounted for more than half of Malaysias total exports. The statistics reflect the increasing significance of exporting as a key economic tool for growth and development in Malaysia. In addition, despite the downturn caused by the Asian financial crisis thirteen years ago, Malaysia has made rapid strides in economic development through the continuous adoption of appropriate policies and strategies to ensure sustainability of growth (WTO, 2005) as well as to transform the economic structure of the country into a manufacturing and export-based economy. 1.2. Problem Statement, Question, and Objectives of the Study A problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal state (Cavana et al., 2007). It is critical that the problem of the study is unambiguously identified, and followed by a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question and objectives of the study. 1.2.1. Research Problem Much of the knowledge about successful export activity is fragmented, and the tradition of building on previous findings is not well-established in the export marketing field (Aaby Slater, 1989). Many export performance studies focused only on a single factor affecting export performance, while there have been only few attempts to come up with models that incorporate a wide range of relevant factors. These exceptions include, (Cooper Kleinschmidt, 1985); (Cavusgil Zou, 1994). Some of the discrepancies in the literature might be attributable to differences regarding the way in which export performance has been assessed (Walters Samiee, 1990). In this context, the vast majority of studies have utilized objective performance indicators (Katsikeas et al., 1996). However, there are two problems with the use of certain objective measures: First problem is concerned with research methodology i.e. accurate objective indicators of export performance are not easy to obtain since formal company financial statements and reports often make no clear distinction between domestic and export business operations, partially due to the fact that many firms view exporting as an extension of their domestic activities (Yang et al., 1992). Second, a serious comparability caveat may arise as a result of inherent measurement weaknesses underlying most objective measures (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Differences among industries and product subsectors in terms of competition or technology could lead to incoherent comparison across the sample firms. In other words, objective indicators of export performance, such as sales volume, sales growth and market share, might have little meaning in those cases where the firms surveyed belong to different industry or product groups (Covin, 1991). Accordingly, in order to fill this literature gap, it is important to use different indicators to measure the multi-dimensionality of export performance and increase the reliability of the results. In this research, we adopt three subjective indicators to measure export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms by asking respondents three questions to indicate their perceptions in achieving objectives regarding export sales, export market share, and export profitability. We use this subjective composite indicator because, compared to other objective export indicators, it cancels the size effect and it also facilitates comparison between companies of different sizes and industries. 1.2.2. Research Question Are firms characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment associated with export performance? If so, which of these contributes most to the variance of the dependant variable? 1.2.3. Research Objectives This study aims to contribute to the meager but growing literature on firm-level export performance for developing countries by using Malaysia as the empirical platform. The study was designed to reexamine some determinants of export performance mentioned in the export marketing literature, more specifically, certain firms characteristics, export marketing strategy adopted, managements attitudes and perceptions, and export commitment are integrated factors that viewed as significantly influencing export performance. In a nutshell, the study seeks to achieve the following two objectives: To investigate the relationships between export performance on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment on the other hand. Establish the relative importance of each of the independent variables in influencing export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms. 1.3. Significance, Scope, and Organization of the Study In the next few paragraphs, we address the approaches deployed in this paper that contribute to the significance of this research in the context of export marketing field. Further, the scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed subsequently. 1.3.1. Significance of the Study With the increasing global business competition, it has become important, particularly for firms in developing countries, to understand the determinants of export performance as firms survival and expansion, and consequent economic growth of many developing countries are strongly dependent on a better understanding of what determines the export performance (Sousa et al., 2008). In spite of the numerous empirical studies of export performance published since the 1960s, the conclusions reached by researchers in this area have, however, varied widely. The significance of the present study is derived from its design to look anew at some determinants of export performance mentioned in the literature in order to examine their effect on export performance manufacturing firms in Malaysia where export marketing research is of extreme relevance for both practitioners and scholars, knowing that the country is considered to be the worlds eighteenth largest exporter, and the trend is growing significantly over time. For example, exports posted a double digit growth in December 2009, year-on-year, rising significantly by 18.7% to RM54.7 billion, compared with December 2008 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010). 1.3.2. Scope and Limitations of the Study The evidence reported in this paper should be interpreted in the light of several limitations. That is, in addition to the relatively low response rate of just 17%, the research effort was restricted to manufacturing firms within a specific country context, thus caution may be exercised in generalizing the present findings too broadly. Nonetheless, generalizations of the study findings may be applicable to those exporting frameworks with similar structural characteristics of export marketing. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits our ability to rule out cause-effect inferences (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Such one-shot study may not be suitable for a research that involves a dynamic phenomenon, therefore, the adoption of longitudinal studies in future studies can provide more insights into the dynamic aspects of export behavior and performance. Other limitations were related to time constraint, specifically during data collection period which started in mid-February 2010. This stage of the research was coincided with celebrations of the Chinese New Year, on February 14th, the period during which most companies in Malaysia had at least a one week holiday. As a result, it took us a relatively longer time than expected to receive responds in order to proceed for further analysis. 1.3.3. Organization of the Study In this study, an attempt is made to synthesize and empirically test a model of export performance focusing on exporters from an ASEAN member. Specifically, the sudsy constitutes indigenous Malaysian manufacturers trading with overseas distributors. The paper is formatted into several sections. First, an in-depth literature is presented including key theoretical and measurement problems. Next, a conceptual framework of export performance is developed through the statement of several hypotheses. Then, the research design approach and methodological procedures including data analysis are described. Lastly, we present the findings of the study followed by a discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. Summary of Chapter One Through its external trade policy, Malaysia aims primarily for a greater integration into the world economy in order to maintain its position as one of the largest global exporters, specifically exports of manufactured products. At a micro level, export performance refers to the outcome of a firms activities in export markets. It is a way to expand access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth. Studies within the export marketing field are characterized by the discrepancy and fragmentation of the findings. In this context, most export performance studies utilized objective export performance measures. However, this might result in the fragmentation of findings due to some issues related to research methodology and comparability caveat among firms. Therefore, subjective indicators are employed to measure the dimensionality of export performance in the Malaysian context. The objective is delineate the relationship between export performance (dependent variable) on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment (independent variables) on the other hand. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW In this chapter, a conceptual background of export performance is coherently addressed; starting with a relevant review of the export marketing performance literature and their main characteristics including the way in which export performance has been measured. We further proceed to identify and classify the multiple independent variables that have been frequently used in past studies. At the end of the chapter, some examples of the discrepancies in the findings of some studies are highlighted. 2.1. Export Marketing Performance Literature The classical economic view tries to explain why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade based on the assumption that countries differ in their abilities to produce goods efficiently. The comparative advantage theory, for example, helps to explain the pattern of international trade that we observe in the world economy (Heckscher Ohlin, 1991); (Ricardo, 1817); and (Smith, 1776). However, the assumptions underlying the principle of comparative advantage are unrealistic in many countries and industries. That is because competitive advantage depends on the capacity to innovate and upgrade. It also depends on the extent to which a home environment is dynamic, challenging, and forward looking. Therefore, competitive advantage is not inherited; in other words, it does not grow out of a countrys natural endowments, its labor, its interest rates or its currencys value, as classical economics insist (Porter, 1990). A plethora of studies have been published in the past 30 years on the determinants of export performance. This is mainly due to the increasing relevance of export marketing as an area of inquiry. Existing literature shows that the United States is the most researched country in export performance studies. However, an increasing number of studies have been conducted by European researchers from non-English-speaking countries who published in English-language journals. Examples include, (Bijmolt Zwart, 1994), (Holzmuller Kasper, 1991), and (Madsen, 1989). Some other studies have also been conducted in developing countries in Asia and Latin America. Characteristics of the studies reviewed are summarized in table 3. The main characteristics that we focused on are: 2.1.1. Size of the Sample Except for one study which used a data base of 20,161 Indonesian firms from different manufacturing sectors, the size of the samples used in the studies reviewed ranges between 51 and 783. Most of them were drawn from multiple manufacturing industries, while just few such as (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995), had included in the sampling, reselling and service firms in addition to manufacturing firms. 2.1.2. Industry Context of Studies The vast majority of the reviewed studies employed samples drawn from multiple manufacturing industries. Only few have included in addition to manufacturers, reselling and service firms. Examples include (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995). This reflects the importance of manufacturing firms in the world economy. However, findings cannot be generalized to other industry contexts. Table 3: Characteristics of the reviewed articles Solberg 2002 Norway 150 mult manuf SML survey correlation/ anova firm Albaum, Tse 2001 Hong Kong 183 mult manuf SML survey regression firm Gencturk, Kotabe 2001 USA 162 mult manuf SML survey anova firm

The Importance of Fort McHenry to America Essay -- essays research pap

As a country, the United States felt that the War of 1812 was under control and that they were well prepared for any battle any army could throw at them. After the United States won an important battle on Lake Erie in 1813, the American commander, Oliver Hazard Perry, sent the message "We have met the enemy and they are ours." As a new country, America, having just defeated the greatest military strength on the earth, was perhaps overconfident. However, once Great Britain turned all of its attention to defeating the United States, America realized that the fate of her country relied on Baltimore, and Baltimore relied on the protection of Fort McHenry. If Fort McHenry was taken over by the British, the Nation would have been split into two. The fate of the United States rested, to a large extent, on the success or failure of the central prong attack which was being protected by Fort McHenry. If Baltimore had not had Fort McHenry for protection, the city would have been an easy target and our nation would have perished because Baltimore would have lacked the proper protection it needed to prevail. Before 1793, there was a base on the peninsula called Whetstone Point, which was of strategic value to the United States because of its location. Whetstone Point was surrounded by water on three sides and in order to get to Baltimore by water, you had to pass by this peninsula. Because of these reasons, this point seemed like an obvious place to put a fort to protect Baltimore. Not only was this a good location because of the water, but it was close enough to Baltimore to protect it without putting it in danger. Therefore, in 1793, a man named John Jacob Ulrich Rivardi was directed by the Secretary of War to create a plan fo... ...endered or America had won. They could vaguely see a flag flying above the fort but could not tell whether it was America or British. Finally the darkness lifted and they saw that the American flag was still up and waving in the wind. After this night, Key wrote a poem telling the events of that night. He called it â€Å"The Defense of Fort M’Henry†. It was published in the newspapers all over America. Someone put the poem to music using an old English tune called â€Å"To Anacreon in Heaven†. This song became America’s first national anthem in 1931. Fort McHenry is not just known for the night when Francis Scott Key put that night into poem, but it is known as a great fort with a very strong military advantage. Fort McHenry helped protect Baltimore and save America. Without Fort McHenry, America could have easily been conquered and destroyed.

Kennedy Assassination Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"President Kennedy was dead. I stopped by a giant live oak tree on the vast front lawn of Parkland Hospital and cried." As this reporter said, people everywhere were distraught when they heard that President Kennedy had been assassinated. News reporters from other countries flew in, called up, and sent letters back to tell the people in their country what had happened and to give advice to the Dallas Police Station. Everyone everywhere was upset by this tragic loss. People were sent home from work, kids sent home from school, and an entire nation with one question, who? The only answer that was given and is still the accepted answer is that, Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone assassin in the murder of President John F. Kennedy. The events surrounding President Kennedy’s death are still under speculation, but this is known for sure: President Kennedy landed in Love Field, Dallas along with his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy at about 11:35 a.m. They left the airport in the motorcade along with Governor Collany and followed by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife, Claudia â€Å"Lady Bird† Taylor. At approximately 12:30 p.m., both President Kennedy and Governor Collany were shot. Lee Harvey Oswald left the Texas Book Depository just three minutes later. By 1:00 p.m., just an hour and a half after Kennedy arrived in Texas, he was announced dead. After the assassination, Oswald got onto a city bus, but once the bus got stuck in traffic, Oswald got off. He then took a taxi to within 4 blocks of his house, but did not go directly to his house. Oswald grabbed a different coat, a handgun, and left without saying a word to his housemaid, who was watching the assassination details on television. He then began walking around Dallas. A police officer named J.T. Tippet saw a man that fit the description of the assassin, so he stopped to ask Oswald some questions. Oswald panicked and shot Officer Tippet and then fled the area. He then entered a cinema where police finally arrested him. The public was outraged that President Kennedy was murdered and wanted an explanation. President Lyndon B. Johnson set up the Warren Commission lead by Earl Warren to head investigation. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone assassin in the murder of John F. Kennedy. Lee Harvey Oswald had a major role in the assassination of Pres... ...ce to support a conspiracy. A conspiracy of that level takes months to plan. If it was a conspiracy attempting to blame Oswald, then how did they come up with all the evidence in just a short time? Oswald’s fingerprints were on the gun; it is very unlikely that his fingerprints could have been on the gun in a conspiracy to blame him. The fact that President Kennedy decided less than a week before the assassination also shows that this was one man acting alone. Oswald more then had to ability to carry out the assassination, and he showed that he would kill someone like when he attempted to kill General Edwin Walker. There is also no plausible evidence linking anyone to the crime besides Lee Harvey Oswald. There is nothing linking a second gunman to the assassination. The main argument that there is a second gunman is he would have been situated in the grassy knoll, but injuries would be on the side of the body, where there were no injuries. The Warren Commission had more evidence that conspirators do not have, and came to their conclusion. Even with all the technology that we have, it is apparent that Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone assassin in the assassination of John F. Kennedy.

Chaucers Canterbury Tales - Character Sketch of Chaucers Knight in General Prologue :: Canterbury Tales Essays

A Character Sketch of Chaucer's Knight in General Prologue Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, written in approximately 1385, is a collection of twenty-four stories ostensibly told by various people who are going on a religious pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral from London, England. Prior to the actual tales, however, Chaucer offers the reader a glimpse of fourteenth century life by way of what he refers to as a General Prologue. In this prologue, Chaucer introduces all of the characters who are involved in this imaginary journey and who will tell the tales. Among the characters included in this introductory section is a knight. Chaucer initially refers to the knight as "a most distinguished man" (l. 43) and, indeed, his sketch of the knight is highly complimentary. The knight, Chaucer tells us, "possessed/Fine horses, but he was not gaily dressed" (ll. 69-70). Indeed, the knight is dressed in a common shirt which is stained "where his armor had left mark" (l. 72). That is, the knight is "just home from service" (l. 73) and is in such a hurry to go on his pilgrimage that he has not even paused before beginning it to change his clothes. The knight has had a very busy life as his fighting career has taken him to a great many places. He has seen military service in Egypt, Lithuania, Prussia, Russia, Spain, North Africa, and Asia Minor where he "was of [great] value in all eyes (l. 63). Even though he has had a very successful and busy career, he is extremely humble: Chaucer maintains that he is "modest as a maid" (l. 65). Moreover, he has never said a rude thing to anyone in his entire life (cf., ll. 66-7). Clearly, the knight possesses an outstanding character. Chaucer gives to the knight one of the more flattering descriptions in the General Prologue. The knight can do no wrong: he is an outstanding warrior who has fought for the true faith--according to Chaucer--on three continents. In the midst of all this contenton, however, the knight remains modest and polite. The knight is the embodiment of the chivalric code: he is devout and courteous off the battlefield and is bold and fearless on it.

American history Essay

In American history, there have been numerous instances in which a greater degree of damage and death which visited out shores. In the three day battle of Gettysburg, more than 51,000 soldiers fell. (Burns, 1989) The invasion of France on June 6, 1944 took more than 6,000 lives. Pearly Harbor claimed more than 2300 lives and introduced Americans to a war that would take more than 400,000 lives. However, the events which transpired on September 11, 2001 will always serve as one of the defining moments for those who lived through it. As with the assassin ion of John F. Kennedy was to our parents’ generation, September 11, 2001 will be for our generation. The news is filled with a multitude of calamities. The Asian tsunami in December of 2004 which claimed 200,000 lives or any number of events which take a toll on the human population, due to the fact that the evening news is saturated with events which should horror us but which really don’t as we have become apathetic against its stimulus, there are sometimes, national tragedies which affect the average American in ways that are hard to explain and fathom for those who are on the outside and looking in. This was the case for Natasha Jackson; a 27 year old African American female who lost two family members on September 11. For her, the day is more than just a time to rally behind the troops and to take time out of one’s day to remember those who died. For Natasha Jackson, 9/11 does not stop but continues 365 days a year. Natasha Jackson grew up in the suburbs of Chicago. Her father was a police chief in DuPage County Illinois. Natasha was in college while the events of September 11 were transpiring. At the end of her 8am class, which ended at 9:15, and upon walking to her next class, she was overheard some talk about a major news event. She did not realize exactly what had happened until the professor in her next class, told her and the rest of the class what had happened. All of the details would not be known until months and years later. However, by the time the second plane hit the tower, it had become obvious that this was no accident. We had hoped that all of the more than 50,000 people, who, on a daily basis, worked in the Twin Towers, would have been able to vacate the building while it was still standing. This was not the case for nearly 3,000 people who perished when the towers fell. (Burns, 2003) Since I had not known anybody in New York or who were on those planes that were hijacked, I was glad that as for me, the event did not take any of my loved ones. However, I knew that was not the case for thousands of families across the country. America was now at war to defeat terrorism and this would take an additional four thousands American lives to date with more casualties being reported daily. I did not know that the events of September 11 would affect somebody so close to me as I would eventually find out to be the case. Towards the end of September, 2001, as clean up crews were still busy picking up the twisted metal from the site of Ground Zero and plans for a strike against Iraq were being discussed, I learned that two of Natasha’s relatives, were not only affected by 9/11, but were actually killed when the first tower fell. It was something that was hard to realize had hit so close to home even when it was not my relatives that had been affected. More than six years later, Natasha sat down to talk to me about the events of that day and what she felt then as well as now. Natasha commented: â€Å"That day is one that I will never forget for as long as I live. † I was horrified by what I saw on television. However, my reaction was one filled with a bit more panic than my classmates who were watching the same thing as I was. I knew that my aunt, Marilyn Jackson worked in Tower One at Canter Fitzgerald. I would later find out that nearly 800 employees of that firm would die on September 11. (Burns, 2003) † When asked exactly what her initial reaction was, Natasha still finds it difficult to accurately explain what she was feeling. â€Å"I though that I was seeing a movie and that the events in New York was an examples of special effects or something. I really didn’t know what to think. I sat transfixed at what I was seeing and I didn’t get around to calling my father until a couple hours after the towers fell. I just didn’t know how to react. † In the immediate hours after the first tower fell, I actually ran into Natasha. We were not our jovial self for obvious reasons but I assumed that it was due to the events in New York, Pennsylvania and at the Pentagon earlier that day. I did not think to ask Natasha if she had known anybody who was killed that day. I knew that she had always had a love affair with New York and hoped to complete her Master’s Degree at New York University one day. I did not know that she had two relatives who lived there in the city. Natasha then explained what her immediate actions were in the hours following the destruction of the first tower and then the second. â€Å"I called my father to ask him the whereabouts of my aunt. He said that he didn’t know and that he would not know for some time. Not only was the event very chaotic, but the fact that he was a police chief in a Chicago suburb, his force went on high alert as there was rumors that The Sears Tower might be targeted. People didn’t know what to think. Everything was a mess. I was a mess as well. I pride myself on being a rational and independent person. I never get anxious but am rather calm and have a strong demeanor. That day, I was not able to contain my composure which only compounded my feelings of anxiety as I did not know how to gather my thoughts. † Natasha then comments on the time when she heard that her aunt was missing and then, a few days later, believed to be dead. â€Å"The next few days, nobody knew where my aunt or many of the other were. I waited by my phone and could not go to class. I tried to separate myself from the various news accounts as there was no shortage of coverage on television. I tried to go for a walk or to go and work out. My attempts did not come to fruition and it only served as a momentary respite from the inner pain and confusion that I was feeling. Eight days later, I received a call from my father who told me that my aunt was probably dead and the possibility of there being any survivors of the attack from those who were in the towers at the time it fell, was very unlikely. The country would later learn that there would not be a single survivor from the fall of the Twin Towers. It seemed unlikely, even before being told that was the case, that anybody could survive that. I still held out hope until I received that call. † The terror that Natasha would feel, would not be confined to only the loss of her aunt, who alone, would be more than anybody could really fathom. What served as a source of added stress, not only was Natasha’s aunt murdered on 9/11, but so too was her uncle. The aunt was from her father’s side and her uncle came from her mother’s side. Gerald Smith was a firefighter and one of the 343 New York City firefighters who died trying to save others in the Twin Towers. (Burns, 2003) â€Å"It is really hard to fathom such a combination punch that misguided and evil people gave to our family. I had been close to my uncle as a child but when he moved to New York, we lost touch. However, as it is the case with most people, those who touch their lives as a child, even though communications might have dropped off, they still reside in an important part of that person’s heart. I had not known that my uncle was still a New York firefighter. However, when my mother called me, not more than two days after being told that my aunt had died, I was told that my uncle died as well. There are no words that could describe what I felt that week. I could not go to class, I barely ate and did not take any visitors at all for the rest of the year. If somebody told me that they I had their condolences and that they understood how I felt, I was so angry inside, that I had to restrain myself from simply punching them in the face. And I am not a violent person by any means. I have strong opinions but usually respect others and would much rather avoid an insulting argument than to engage in one. I just became a very angry and bitter person. † In perspective, I asked Natasha how she now viewed 9/11 and all of the ramifications that it has now had for the country. â€Å"I have considered myself a Democrat for most of my life. However, even though the war in Iraq has been mishandled on a dozen different fronts, I become so angry when I hear politicians from both political parties proclaim that we should simply leave Iraq and that terrorism is really not worth fighting. It seems to me that since America is a very disposable society, people have forgotten what happened on 9/11. I will never forget seeing people jumping 1000 feet to their deaths while the towers burned. When I hear reports of Glasgow, London, Bali and Madrid being victims of more terrorist attacks from a small portion of the Muslim community who have been steered the wrong way, I become very frustrated. Does one have to lose two members of their family in a terrorist attack to remember that America is a very dangerous place and that there are millions of people who would love to attack this country. I still am a Democrat and believe in the principles of the party. I just feel so frustrated, as does most Americans, about the level of unity and as a result, progress that is being achieved in this area. † Natasha spent most of the Fall of 2001, dealing with the deaths of her family members. â€Å" Since there were no remains that were found of both my aunt and uncle, I really didn’t know what to do. I still go to their grave sites but I know that their body is not there. In time, the body would slowly disappear but I wanted to have the same experience that anybody would want who receive some comfort in visiting the gravesite of their loved ones. At least, I wanted to experience that but have been unable to. However, I feel additionally cheated by the fact that the only place where I can visit my aunt and uncle is in my mind. † When asked, Natasha speaks about her life since 9/11. â€Å"I eventually graduated college and even though my plans to receive my Master’s Degree at New York University did not pan out, I still feel close to that city and always will. I went to Boston to work for the Democratic National Convention in the months leading up to the 2004 election. With a degree in political science, I always have been politically aware of my surroundings. I knew that I needed to expand my sphere of influence beyond college and felt that my effort in the DNC, although not successful, still did prove some good. I honored my aunt and uncle in that respect. † It was a trying but successful time for me as I actually got to meet President Clinton while dining at a restaurant in Boston. I walked up to both him and his wife Hillary and introduced myself beyond the Secret Service and Mr. Clinton actually said that he had heard that we were doing good work. Perhaps that was just lip service but it was a great honor for me nevertheless. †

Developments in 3 Dimensional Art in 20th Century Essay

Three dimensional art works went through a heavy period of transition through the 20th century. At the start, sculpture could be summed up in Johann Gottfreid von Herder’s consideration of sculpture as â€Å"a harsh reality. † Unlike painting and the other traditional media, sculpture was being redefined, both formally and technically. Painting, despite the many innovations and explorations that occurred in the 20th century, was still oil and pigment put on a flat surface. But sculpture, rather 3 dimensional arts, became so much more dynamic and expansive. There was no requisite to make 3 dimensional artworks to be made of traditional materials like stone, bronze or wood; but instead, they could-and were-made of anything. One major development was installation art. Installation art was three dimensional works that was meant to engage and transform the exhibition space or whatever is in proximity to the work itself. Land art is the outdoor equivalent of this phenomenon. Installation can be considered coming into real prominence during the 1970’s, but has its roots all the way back with Marcel Duchamp’s readymade sculptures The genre can include traditional and everyday materials, as well as new media such as video, audio, and performance. Before the nomenclature of installation was coined, these types of works were also called environments, project art, and temporary art. Its primary focus is to have the work of art exceed traditional media through the escaping of flat, square frames, and pedestals with isolated objects. Instead, it attempts to immerse the viewer, the environment, and all its other adjunct factors in as a part of the art. For this reason, most installations are considered to have no definite specific media. Instead, it is said that time and space are the only persistent elements of this type of work. The overwhelming element of installations developed from Richard Wagner’s revival of Gesamkunstwerk in his operas. He incorporated every element of art to completely overwhelm the viewer. This is the intent of the installation artist. In another vein, three dimensional arts, particularly the more traditional genre of sculpture, the element and philosophy of minimalism became dominant with the vanguard of David Smith. David Smith is a primary example of this. His sculptures were some of the most original and simplistic sculptures at the time. Among the greatest American sculptors of the twentieth century, David Smith was the first to work with welded metal. He wove a rich mythology around this rugged work, often talking of the formative experiences he had in his youth while working in a car body workshop. Yet this only disguised a brilliant mind that fruitfully combined a range of influences from European modernism including Cubism, Surrealism, and Constructivism. It also concealed the motivations of a somewhat private man whose art was marked by expressions of trauma. Smith was close to painters such as Robert Motherwell, and in many respects he translated the painterly concerns of the Abstract Expressionists into sculpture. But far from being a follower, his achievement in sculpture was distinctive and influential. He brought qualities of industrial manufacturing into the language of art and proved to be an important influence on Minimalism. Collage was an important influence on Smith, and it shaped his work in various ways. It inspired him to see that a sculpture, just like a paper collage, could be made up of various existing elements. It also encouraged him to combine found objects like tools into his sculptures; it later influenced the way he contrasted figurative motifs and informed the way he assembled the large-scale geometric abstract sculptures of his last days. One of Smith’s most important formal innovations was to abandon the idea of a â€Å"core† in sculpture. This notion was pervasive in modern sculpture, fostering an approach that saw sculptural form springing from a center that was almost imagined to be organic and alive. But Smith replaced it with the idea of â€Å"drawing in space. † He would use thin wire to produce linear, transparent sculptures with figurative motifs at their edges. Later he would use large geometric forms to create structures reminiscent of the vigorous gestures of the Abstract Expressionists. One of the means by which Smith sought to keep the viewer at a distance from his sculptures – emotionally and intellectually – was to devise innovative approaches to composition. These were aimed at making it difficult for the viewer to perceive or imagine the entirety of the object at once, forcing us to consider it part by part. One method he used was to disperse pictorial motifs around the edge of the sculpture, so that our eyes have to move from one element to another. Another was to make the sculptures look and seem very different from the front than they do from the side. He completely redefined the construction methods of sculpture, using a blow torch to weld instead of casting—the normal way to make sculpture. As a result, much of his work is highly original, and it is considered that he has a strong relation to painters. The method he uses is, in fact, more closely related to painting than the typical act of sculpture. He adds separate pieces of scrap metal and welds them together. He also pushed the boundaries subjectively in sculpture, producing some subjects that were never produced in three dimensional arts before. Later on, he also began using a sander—which helped define the texture found on his cubi series. It was through this man that American sculpture was defined. Minimalism was his main influence in these later designs, in which he stripped forms of all their excess elements to give it the bare minimum representation. David Smith’s career encompasses a range of styles, from the figurative expressionism of his early relief sculptures, to the organic abstraction of his Surrealist-influenced work, to the geometric constructions of his later years. In this respect, he drew on many of the same European modernist influences as his peers, the Abstract Expressionists. And, like them, one of his most important advances lay in adapting the language Even with David smith and the minimalist movement, there were still more stylistic developments in the 20th century. There was also a resurgence of figurative art during this period. IN 1960, art critic Pierre Restrany wrote a manifesto for a group who called themselves the new realists, and called for a new way of perceiving the real. The term nouveau realisme, or new realism, has long been tied to the specific claims made by the critic Pierre Restany about the Paris-based art group he promoted. Restany convinced Arman, Yves Klein, Jean Tinguely, Daniel Spoerri, Martial Raysse, Jacques de la Villegle, Raymond Hains, and Francois Dufrene to sign on initially, and then added Cesar, Niki de Saint-Phalle, Gerard Deschamps, Mimmo Rotella, and Christo. His 1960 manifesto characterized their art as affirmatively summoning â€Å"the whole of sociological reality, the common good of human activity, the large republic of our social exchanges, of our commerce in society. This movement led to a newfound interest in the human figure, which seemingly disappeared during the popularity of abstract expressionism and minimalism. To this group any image could be incorporated into the art of the new realists. They had a similar goal as the makers of installations—to bring the world of art closer and more applicable to real life. Therefore they tended toward realistic artwork. In the field of figurative art, they often focused on outside objects of the figure for identification, in an attempt to avoid the â€Å"traps of figurative art:† petty bourgeois and Stalinist social realism. These artists also began a more collective attitude towards art, sometimes making works in collaboration with each other, with the intent of displaying the works anonymously. This massive new development in three dimensional work is partially due to the photograph making the realistic image somewhat obsolete, and thus at the beginning of the century an urgency of abstracted and eventually non representative work began to develop. Later on, abstract expressionism pushed boundaries even further to challenge the process of making art. By the time the sixties come around, artists are on the edge of these two frontiers, and some manage to push the boundaries even further, exploring the process more through building installations out of anything and making sculpture from scrap. Others, however, feel a drought in the art world and call for a new, innovative way to display the real. All in all, disinterest in realistic images and a thirst for exploration are what mark the midcentury three dimensional art scenes.